Examining Sinophobia and Sinophilia in Africa in the Context of the Belt and Road Initiative from 1991 to 2023: A Case Study of Djibouti

Abstract

This article analyzes the simultaneous phenomena of Sinophilia (pro-China sentiment) and Sinophobia (fear or hostility toward China) in Africa, with a focus on the Republic of Djibouti as a critical case study over the period from 1991 to 2023. Centering on China’s relations with African countries—particularly Djibouti—the study poses the following question: what factors have contributed to the formation, persistence, and interaction of Sinophilia and Sinophobia in the Republic of Djibouti during the 1991–2023 period? Using an analytical framework that integrates theories of realism (to understand security and geopolitical calculations), international political economy (to analyze loans, debt, and interdependence), and postcolonialism (to grasp the historical and discursive roots of South–South cooperation), the article argues that Djibouti’s experience represents an extreme and instructive example of geography-rent–based realpolitik. In this model, the state, by adopting an actively Sinophilic approach, has transformed China’s presence into a driver of infrastructural development and a source of revenue. However, this trajectory has also led to deep and asymmetric security–economic dependence, creating conditions for the emergence of Sinophobia centered on narratives of “debt-trap diplomacy,” sovereignty concerns, and the unequal distribution of benefits. The findings indicate that Djibouti, by leveraging its relative agency and engaging in great-power balancing, has so far avoided the most severe outcomes, yet the sustainability of this model depends on economic diversification and improvements in domestic governance. Ultimately, the study demonstrates that the dynamics of Sinophilia and Sinophobia in Africa must be understood at the intersection of the international system’s structure, host countries’ development strategies, and the legacy of North–South relations.