How the Seljuks of Iran Adapted the Theory of the Sultan as God’s Shadow (Ẓill Allāh) and the Abbasid Concept of the Caliph as God’s Vicegerent (Khalīfat Allāh), and Its Impact on the Consolidation of Their Position

Abstract

The Seljuk dynasty, in terms of territorial extent, political cohesion, and power, represents the most significant ruling dynasty of Iran after the advent of Islam, having established a formidable empire during the medieval period. In intellectual and bureaucratic domains, the Seljuks modeled their system of governance on the coherent and powerful states of pre-Islamic Iran, particularly the Sasanian Empire, and implemented Iranshahrī concepts and the notion of divine glory (farr-e īzadī) within their governmental structure. The principal architect of this form of governance in that period was Khwāja Niẓām al-Mulk, the powerful, prudent, and intellectually distinguished Iranian vizier, who succeeded in establishing a strong, orderly, and authoritative administrative system over a territory that was nearly equivalent to that of the Sasanian Empire at the height of its power. Within this context, the tension between the Iranshahrī ideology and the concept of divine glory and the theory of the sultan as God’s shadow—both derived from the political thought of ancient Iran, especially the Sasanian tradition—and the spiritual authority of the Abbasid caliphs, whose legitimacy was believed to derive from God and the Prophet and whom the Seljuks formally regarded themselves as bound to obey, provided the impetus for the present study. Accordingly, this research examines the manner in which these two political-theological concepts were reconciled and the extent of their influence on Seljuk political and governmental interactions. The findings indicate that the Seljuks, under the leadership of their powerful vizier Niẓām al-Mulk, while implementing Iranshahrī thought, the doctrine of divine glory, and the principle of the sultan’s absolute sovereignty within the Seljuk governmental structure, outwardly expressed loyalty to the caliph in order to benefit from his spiritual influence among the populace. In practice, however, they themselves made and executed all major political and military decisions and at times even intervened in the appointment and dismissal of the caliph’s ministers and officials, effectively imposing their own views upon the caliph. The present study employs a descriptive–analytical method to investigate how the Seljuks of Iran adapted the theory of the sultan as God’s shadow and the Abbasid concept of the caliph as God’s vicegerent, and to assess the impact of this adaptation on the consolidation of their political position.